Portuguese in India

History of trade relations between India and Europe

India and Europe had trading relations since time immemorial. This is evident from the large amounts of gold and roman goods found in India, particularly throughout the Sangam age.

This trade used to take via the subsequent three routes:

(i) Via the Silk route which borders the Amu Darya River, Caspian, Sea and Black Sea.

(ii) Via the Arabian Sea and then a land rouute through Saudi Arabia, Syria and then on the Mediterranean Sea.

(iii) Via Arabia Sea, Red Sea after which on land passing Egypt and then through a sea route over the Mediterranean Sea.

• The history of trade relations between India and Europe before modern India encompasses a rich and diverse tapestry of commercial interactions, cultural exchanges, and geopolitical dynamics. Here’s an exploration of this historical narrative:
• Ancient Trade Routes: India’s trade connections with Europe date back to ancient times, facilitated by land routes such as the Silk Road and maritime routes along the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean.
• Roman and Greek Influence: The Roman Empire and ancient Greek civilizations engaged in trade with India, importing luxury goods like spices, textiles, precious stones, and perfumes.
• Arab Traders: During the medieval period, Arab traders played a vital role as intermediaries in the India-Europe trade, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas.

European Exploration and Early Contacts

• Portuguese Exploration (Late 15th Century): The arrival of Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in Calicut in 1498 marked a significant milestone, establishing direct sea routes between Europe and India and initiating Portuguese trade dominance in the Indian Ocean.
• Portuguese Trade Posts: Portuguese traders established trading posts and fortified settlements along the western coast of India, including Goa, Calicut, and Daman, focusing on spices, textiles, and precious metals.
• Dutch and English Competitions (17th Century): The Dutch East India Company and the English East India Company emerged as competitors to Portuguese dominance, establishing their trading posts and vying for control over lucrative trade routes and commodities.

Contemporary Relevance

• Historical Legacy: The history of trade relations between India and Europe forms a foundational aspect of their interconnected histories, shaping economic, cultural, and geopolitical landscapes.
• Contemporary Trade: Today, India and Europe maintain robust trade relations across various sectors, including technology, pharmaceuticals, automobiles, and renewable energy, reflecting a continuum of historical economic engagement and diplomatic ties.

This historical exploration illuminates the intricate and multifaceted nature of trade relations between India and Europe before the modern era, highlighting their enduring impact on global commerce, cultural diffusion, and historical narratives.

Factors behind the advent of Europeans

• Rise of centralised states with strong kings like Portugal and Spain encouraged explorations and supported navigators.
• Technological development such as the compass, astrolabe, gunpowder, printing and making of maps (cartography) made the works of explorers easier.
• Fables about the riches of Asia countries, and the zeal to spread Christianity and achieve glory also inspired navigators.
• In search of a maritime route from Western Europe to the East. Bartholoew Diaz (a Portuguese) reached the southern tip of Africa in 1487 and it was named as Cape of Good Hope. In 1498, Vasco Da Gama landed in India.
• Rise of Joint Stock Companies which allowed pooling of capital from the large number of shareholders, continuity of business activities, liquidity, and ease of movement of capital for more profitability. Thus, joint stock companies were a preferable method of business organisation which allowed European trading companies to dominate East Indian trade.

The Portuguese were the first ones to come, but it was the British who were able to capture vast Indian territories and make themselves the leading power of the 

industrial age. 

Why Europeans Wanted to Come to India

• To re-establish direct contact between Europeans and Indians and reduce dependence on Arab Muslim intermediaries.
• Easy accessibility to Indian commodities like spices, calicoes, silk and precious stones, which were in high demand worldwide.
• The Spirit of the Renaissance, combined with advances in Shipbuilding, and Navigation, made all Europeans eager to explore the seas and reach the East.
• During this period in Europe, economic development advanced rapidly in many regions.
  • This economic prosperity heightened the demand for oriental luxury goods, particularly spices used for cooking and preservation.

THE PORTUGUESE

The Portuguese: The First To Reach India

• Establishment of Global Leadership: Portugal had assumed leadership of Christendom in its resistance against Islam, thus they wanted to expand their domination across geographies. Prince Henry of Portugal, also known as the ‘Navigator’ was given a bull by Pope Nicholas V in 1454, conferring on him the right to explore the oriental shores as far as India. 
• Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): In 1497, pursuant to the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), Portugal and Spain divided the non-Christian world by an imaginary line in the Atlantic, 1,300 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands. Portugal was granted the right to claim and occupy territories to the east  of the line, while Spain could do so for territories to the west. This division set the stage for Portuguese ventures into the waters around India. 
• The First Attempt to reach India: In 1487, Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed up the eastern coast of Africa, mistaking it to be India. However, it was in May 1498, that the Portuguese finally landed in India. 
• Establishment of Cochin: Vasco da Gama’s expeditions and conflicts with the Zamorin Kingdom resulted in the establishment of a Portuguese base on the Malabar coast of India. Francisco de Almeida, the first viceroy, chose Cochin as the location for his headquarters.
• Conflict with the Zamorin: In 1509, Alfonso de Albuquerque led a Portuguese fleet to Calicut to destroy the Zamorin, but faced resistance and had to retreat. However, Albuquerque later signed a treaty with the Zamorin in 1513 to protect Portuguese interests in Malabar.
• Establishment of Goa: With the help of the Vijayanagar Empire, Alfonso de Albuquerque successfully defeated the Bijapur Sultanate in 1510, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in Goa. Subsequently, Goa became the headquarters of Portuguese colonial possessions in India and the seat of the viceroy. In 1843, the capital of Portuguese India was shifted to Panjim, which was renamed Nova Goa and served as the administrative seat. Portuguese control remained primarily confined to Goa, as well as the enclaves of Diu and Daman, for the next century.

Important Portuguese Figures in India 

Vasco Da Gama 

• He arrived in India with three ships in 1498, led by a Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid, and got a friendly reception from the Zamorin (ruler of Calicut), through which he was able to gain huge profits from the pepper trade. Vasco da Gama spent three months in India. When he returned to Portugal, he brought a valuable cargo with him and profitably sold the goods on the European market.
• The value of direct access to the pepper trade was demonstrated by the fact that Europeans would have had to pay 10 times as much for the same amount of pepper if they had to buy through Muslim intermediaries.
• When Vasco Da Gama mixed economic avarice with violent hatred and inflicted revenge on Arab commerce everywhere he could, the Zamorin refused to exclude Arab merchants in favor of the Portuguese. As a result, his break with the Zamorin was complete.
• He again came to India in 1501 and set up a trading factory at Cannanore. Vasco Da Gama visited India three times – 1498, 1501 and 1524. He died in Cochin in 1524, three months after his arrival.

Pedro Alvarez Cabral 

• He embarked on a voyage to trade for spices and established a factory in Calicut in September 1500.
• Conflict arose when the Portuguese factory in Calicut was attacked, leading to casualties among the Portuguese. In retaliation, Cabral seized Arab merchant ships, causing significant loss of life, confiscating cargo, and burning the ships. Calicut was bombarded by Cabral. 
• Despite the conflict, Cabral later successfully negotiated favourable treaties with local rulers in Cochin and Cannanore.

Francisco De Almeida 

• In 1505, the King of Portugal appointed Francisco De Almeida as governor of India.
• Almeida’s mission was to consolidate the Portuguese position, destroy Muslim trade, and seize Aden, Ormuz, and Malacca. He was advised to build fortresses at Anjadiva, Cochin, Cannanore, and Kilwa.
• Faced opposition from the Zamorin and a threat from the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. Egyptians, supported by Venetian merchants, raised a fleet to counter Portuguese interference. In 1507, a Portuguese squadron was defeated in a naval battle off Diu by combined Egyptian and Gujarat navies, resulting in the death of Almeida’s son.
• Almeida avenged the defeat in 1508 by crushing the two navies.

Alfonso de Albuquerque

• He succeeded Almeida as Portuguese Governor in India and is considered to be the real founder of Portuguese power in the East. He successfully established bases at Ormuz, in Malabar, in Malacca as well as in the Red Sea to maintain Portuguese control over the Indian Ocean. 
• He introduced a ‘permit system’ for other ships. He also acquired Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510, which became the first Indian territory under European control since Alexander the Great. He introduced new crops like Tobacco and Cashew nut, or better plantation varieties of coconut.
• He prompted persecution of Muslims due to Portuguese leadership of Christendom. Albuquerque abolished sati and encouraged Portuguese men to marry locals. Portuguese settlers in Goa and the North Province became landlords, introducing new crops and infrastructure.

Nino Da Cunha 

• He became governor of Portuguese interests in India in November 1529. He shifted the Portuguese government headquarters from Cochin to Goa in 1530. He ceded the island of Bassein with its dependencies and promised a base in Diu to the Portuguese.
• Relations soured when Humayun withdrew from Gujarat in 1536. Conflict arose as inhabitants of the town fought with the Portuguese. Bahadur  Shah aimed to raise a partition wall, leading to negotiations with the Portuguese.
• In 1537, during the negotiations, the ruler of Gujarat was invited to a Portuguese ship and killed.
• Da Cunha aimed to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal, settling Portuguese nationals with Hooghly as their headquarters. 

Structure of Administration

• The viceroy was the head of administration and had a term of three years. The viceroy was supported by the Secretary as well as a Council in later years. 
• Vedor da Fazenda was the second most important official who was responsible for revenues, cargoes and dispatch of fleets
• Captains, assisted by ‘factors’, had control over Fortresses under Portugal.

Religious Policy

• Portugese promote Christianity across all their territories and persecute Muslims. 
• They were initially tolerant towards Hindus, but later they persecuted Hindus to promote conversions.
• Jesuits Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate were sent to Mughal emperor Akbar’s court in 1580 and were treated with respect. However, Portuguese hopes of converting Akbar never became a reality, even after successive attempts. 

Political Relations with the Mughals 

• Akbar and Jahangir treated Jesuits with respect, leading to good relations in the initial years.
• In 1608, British Captain William Hawkins came to Jahangir’s court and won his favour, as seen in being granted trading facilities. This made the Portuguese retaliate against the British, their new competitor in the Indian Ocean.
• Portuguese acts of piracy also irritated the Mughal government, which strained the relations. 
• Under the reign of Shah Jahan, the Portuguese lost all the advantages that they enjoyed in the Mughal court since the time of Emperor Akbar. 
• They monopolized the manufacture of salt, built a custom house of their own, and started enforcing the levy of duty on tobacco strictly.
• Portuguese engaged in a cruel slave trade, purchasing or seizing Hindu and Muslim children and raising them as Christians. They seized two slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal during their activities.
• In response, Shah Jahan ordered Bengal governor Qasim Khan to take action against the Portuguese. 
• A Mughal siege of Hooghly began on June 24, 1632, resulting in its capture three months later.

Significance of The Portuguese 

• • Establishment of Naval Power:
    • The Portuguese were the first foreign naval power to come to India. They had cannons on their ships, which helped them monopolize trade using tools of violence. 
    • They showcased military innovation through the use of body armour, matchlock men and guns from their ships. They also used the Spanish model to organize their infantry which was later followed by the French, the English as well as the Marathas using similar strategies. 
    • Improved shipbuilding techniques helped them navigate the seas across seasons. The Portuguese created Royal arsenals, Dockyards and had a regular system for pilots which ensured optimal performance of their navy in the Indian Ocean.

• Food and Agriculture

• • • New Crops: The Portuguese introduced crops such as Cashew Nut, potato, tomato, maize, papaya, peanuts, guava, avocado, tobacco, and chillies to India. These crops later became integral to Indian cuisine and are widely used in various dishes.
    • Fermentation Techniques: The Portuguese introduced new techniques for fermenting yeast, leading to the production of leavened bread in India.

• Modernisation of Military:

• • • Violent Combat Style: The Portuguese brought a combative style of warfare influenced by missionary fervour and animosity against Muslims and indigenous populations. 
    • Unprecedented Firepower: The Portuguese Armadas had an unprecedented level of firepower in India. The resounding sound of their ship-mounted guns echoed across Kerala, showcasing their military might.
    • Fortified Outposts: The Portuguese established a chain of heavily fortified outposts connected by armed ships to control commerce in distant oceans. Through coercion and the use of force, they influenced market forces and maintained control over trade routes.
    • The ‘Cartaze’ System: The Portuguese introduced the ‘Cartaze’ system, which required every ship to pay a specific sum to obtain a ‘Cartaze’ (license) from the Portuguese authorities. Ships without a Cartaze were seized, and their crews were either killed or imprisoned, showcasing the extent of Portuguese control.

• Education and Printing Press

• • In 1556, the printing press was introduced in Goa, enabling the mass production of books. The first printing press in India was established at the Jesuit Saint Paul’s College in Old Goa. The first book printed in India was the “Compendio Spiritual DaVide Christaa” (Spiritual Compendium of the Christian Life) by Gaspar Jorge de Leo Pereira, the Portuguese Archbishop of Goa.
  • Focus on Promotion of Christianity: Initially, the printing press was used for publications related to the propagation of Christianity and missionary institutions.

Decline of The Portuguese 

• Rise of powerful dynasties in the Middle-East: The rise of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia as well as in North India made them lose their competitive advantage in the initial years.
• Oppressive Religious policies: Religious policies such as conversion by force antagonized both Muslim and Hindu rulers. The notoriety of the Portuguese as sea pirates, combined with excessive use of violence, led to resentment among local rulers.
• Shift of Focus: Later, Portugal shifted its focus to Brazil for its colonizing activities, which led to the neglect of Indian territories. Now Brazil became the economic center of the overseas empire of Portugal as against Goa earlier. 
• Loss of the Portuguese monopoly over India: The Union of Spain and Portugal led to an increased focus on Spain’s wars with England and Holland, thereby making a loss of the Portuguese monopoly over India inevitable. Other colonial powers, such as the Dutch and the English, now had knowledge of the sea route to India neutralizing the first mover advantage of Portugal.

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